Bosque Redondo Memorial at Fort Sumner Historic Site
Featured Stories
Image: Diné woman and child photographed at Bosque Redondo, 1864–1868. Palace of the Governors Photo Archives (NMHM/DCA), Neg. No. 003242.
Deposition From a Navajo Woman Captive
September 2025
By Rebekha C. Crockett, Instructional Coordinator Supervisor at Bosque Redondo Memorial
As has been discussed in previous articles, while orders were to only shoot adult men, the Navajo Campaign presented many dangers and hardships to women and children as well, not the least of which was the booming slave trade of Native Peoples during this time period. In this article, we contrast the experience of a person named only as “a Navajo woman captive,” documented by Captain Francis McCabe, with a letter from Superintendant of Indian Affairs, Felipe Delgado, which places a positive spin on the practice of slavery. Both pieces of correspondence were written in July 1865.
On July 9th, 1865, in Albuquerque, Captain Francis McCabe recorded a deposition from a Navajo woman captive. Jose Maria Ruis was the interpreter. He mailed headquarters a copy of the deposition along with the following letter:
“It is evident from the examination that Capt. Calloway was mistaken when he stated that this woman had escaped from the reservation; but whether the parties who captured her had a right to sell her or not is a question…submitted for the consideration of the General Commanding. It is certain that her case is a sad one and would excite the sympathy of any person not dead to the nobler feelings of humanity. That she has suffered hard treatment from her last owner I do not at all doubt, and she is still inconsolable for the loss of her 3 small children, one of whom was killed and 2 others captured when she was taken. Subsequent to the above examination the interpreter stated that the woman said she had been brutally beaten by the person who kept her prisoner and also by his wife. The only hope she has is that the General Commanding will order that she be sent to Bosque Redondo where she can live with some of her relatives, and that her sisters who are held as prisoners at some distance below this place be sent there with her. I have never seen a case before in which my sympathies were so deeply enlisted and none which in my opinion is more deserving the attention of the General Commanding the Department. The woman who is unusually intelligent says that many of the wandering Navajoes now roaming in the Navajoe country would voluntarily surrender, if they did not dread falling in with armed parties of citizens from whom they expect no mercy. From all I can learn there were no other captive Indians near Bernalillo except some captives living at the residence of Hon. S. A. Hubbell who have been captured several years ago, and the judge says that they could not be induced to leave his service voluntarily…” In a postscript, McCabe added: “…She desired that her sisters be sent to the Bosque along with her.”
Regarding the subject of slavery in New Mexico, on July 16th 1864, the Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Felipe Delgado, wrote Commissioner William Dole:
“… the representation made to the government upon this subject have been greatly exaggerated. It is true there are among the citizens of the country a large number of Indian captives belonging to various tribes, that have been acquired by purchase from the Utah, Navajo, and other tribes; but rather from a Christian piety on the part of the whites to obtain them in order to instruct and educate them in civilization, and at the same time to leave them at full liberty whenever the Indians desired it; in some cases to remain until they were 21 years of age. This has been the practice in the country for the last century and a half, and the result arising from it has been to the captive favorable, humane, and satisfactory. When those Indians wish to marry, their guardians do not object, but rather treat them as their adopted children, and give them pecuniary aid [money] at the time of their marriage. When the guardian dies they usually leave something to the captives. But in my official capacity I am always ready to obey the laws and comply with the orders of my superiors. With this motive in view I hope you will give me such further instructions as may seem proper on the subject. I have already given orders to the several agents under my charge that under no pretext whatever will Indians be permitted hereafter to be bought and sold, or held as slaves. I will use all my vigilance to the end that this practice may be forever discontinued”
While the two accounts of slavery differ wildly, it is telling that the former is from the perspective of someone who was held as a slave and the latter from the perspective of those who held slaves. After Carleton ordered all Diné (Navajo) slaves to be freed and taken to the Bosque, soldiers would go to homes were there were reports that Diné were being kept as slaves. From this, there are several documented cases of Diné telling soldiers at the first opportunity that they are being held against their will and often abused. There are also documented cases of slave owners going to great lengths to prevent handing over these individuals, including in one instance where a Diné elder was found with infected sores on her wrists and ankles from being tied up at night to prevent her escape, and another woman being hidden under a pile of pots and pans in the kitchen and only being found when she called out to the soldiers for help, just to name some examples. While the hardships of Bosque Redondo were known, many Diné would choose it in order to at least be with their families and people. But those who travelled to Fort Sumner or other military posts to surrender risked being attacked, captured, killed, or sold into slavery en route by local New Mexican militias and slave traders, as demonstrated by the experiences of the woman McCabe interviewed. Delgado’s depiction of slavery in New Mexico was, at best, the exception, not the norm.
Images: The Carlisle Indian Industrial School, in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was the first federal off-reservation Indian boarding school in the United States. Here, Diné students were photographed upon their arrival at the school in 1882, and then again six months later, to demonstrate their rapid assimilation. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, 02292500 and 02292400.
Lost Culture
May 2025
By Lillian Bowe, Interpretive Ranger, Bosque Redondo Memorial
The Bosque Redondo Indian Reservation was a failure to humanity from just about every point of view. But through all the adversity, both the Diné (Navajo) and Ndé (Mescalero Apache) people survived this horrendous experience and were able to return to their homelands. Yet this was not the end of the US government's interference with the lives of these tribal communities. This article discusses the birth of boarding schools, its impact on both the Diné and Ndé, as well as the background of one of the more infamous schools that employed tools of attempted genocide—the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania.
The Bosque Redondo Indian Reservation did try to change the culture of both tribes by forcing the tribes to become farmers and forcing them to become Christian. This would have been the primary objective once the reservation had a stable food source and proper shelters. However, this was never achieved, and many of the adult members of the tribe refused to adopt this lifestyle, but the U.S. Military sought out another way to destroy the tribes’ culture. Rita Wheeler, Diné, was told by her grandparents about their time at the reservation. A school was set up at the reservation, but it was voluntary, and the tribe’s priority was on surviving. However, the military needed some way to communicate with the Diné. According to Wheeler, the military designated two young boys, one named Chee Dodge and the other named Chaalátoh to learn English. The boys studied for two years and became interpreters. The children’s ability to learn reinforced the idea of boarding schools. The Diné remained on the reservation until a treaty was negotiated and signed on June 1, 1868.
While the Navajo Treaty of 1868 recognized the sovereignty of the Navajo Nation and set aside a portion of their homeland for the people to inhabit and resources to rebuild following the scorched-earth campaign, it also forced the tribe to send their children to boarding schools, which we recognize as a devastating legacy. According to article VI: Education of Navajo Children, “In order to make sure that the Navajo people become ‘civilized,’ the United States will oversee the education of Navajo children. This education will specifically teach the Navajo how to settle and farm the lands within the Navajo Nation reservation. Parents must make their children, both boys and girls between the ages of six and sixteen, to attend the U.S. government-run schools. The United States Government’s Indian agent will make sure that all the parents make their children attend the schools. For every thirty children that attend the school the United States will provide a classroom and a teacher who can provide a basic education.” This article sent children to many parts of the United States. Some children went to school near their homelands, while some were sent more than 1,000 miles away. The determining factor of where the children were sent was not the proximity to their homeland, but the availability of rooms at the various schools. One of the most infamous schools was in Pennsylvania, called the Carlisle Indian Industrial School.
The Carlisle school was opened in 1879 as the first government-run boarding school for Native American children. The school’s purpose was not just for education, but to commit cultural genocide under the guise of making them "civilized.” Cultural genocide is the destruction of one’s culture by another and then assimilating to their new culture. Carlisle taught students from around 142 Indian nations according to the National Park Service. The students would live on campus separated by biological sex, but some students could live with families around the area. This program had the students live with white families where they had to have a job to make money. These families would keep records of the students, which documented their health, condition of their room, cleanliness, and church attendance. While at school, the male students were forced to cut their hair, and all students had to stop wearing their traditional clothing and only speak English.
Image: Timothy H. O'Sullivan, Cañon de Chelle. Walls of the Grand Cañon about 1200 Feet in Height., 1873, albumen silver print, 8 x 10 7⁄8 in. (20.3 x 27.6 cm.), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Museum purchase from the Charles Isaacs Collection made possible in part by the Luisita L. and Franz H. Denghausen Endowment, 1994.91.134
A Seed is Planted
March 2025
By Aaron Roth, Bosque Redondo Memorial Site Manager
The Diné (Navajo) of Cañon de Chelly, Arizona are part of a long history of fruit growers in the American Southwest, a practice that originated with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. However, the Diné were not the first Native People to practice fructiculture. It wasn’t until the 18th century that the Diné were introduced to peach cultivation from the nearby Hopi country, though the Diné cultivation methods differ in many ways from their Hopi counterparts.
The Diné plant their peach tree seeds by hand. They do not practice slip planting, grafting, budding, pruning living branches, or fruit thinning. Only the largest seeds are hand selected for planting. It takes three to four years for a peach tree to mature and produce fruit. Diné protect their orchards from mammalian pests, like porcupines, by building palisaded fences, deadfalls, and fires covered with horse manure to create a disagreeable smoke screen. Dogs are also tied up in orchards to intimidate potential pests. Insecticides are also sprayed in the spring to protect against insects. Irrigation is occasionally practiced, but the primary way to water the orchards is by runoff from nearby cliffs and tributary drainages. The Diné have many uses for peaches.
Peaches (dzidzé tsoh, which means big choke cherry or big berry) are used primarily for food. They are typically eaten raw or cooked (boiled). However, some are dried on large slabs for long-term storage or winter use. Dried peaches, often too tough to chew, are boiled for 24 hours before consumption. Dried peaches are also used by medicine men to purge themselves. A yellow dye is also obtained from the leaves of the trees.
Fruit trees (primarily peaches) were a major part of the Diné way of life. This way of life was seriously threatened during Colonel Christopher (Kit) Carson’s scorched earth campaign against the Diné in Cañon de Chelly in 1864. Not only did he poison wells, burn homes, or kill sheep, he destroyed any peach orchard he came across, whether the Diné were present or not.
On January 14, 1864, Carson’s scribe recorded one such account. He wrote: “While en route on my return to camp I was joined by 3 Indians with a flag of truce requesting permissions to come in with their people and submit. I told them through my interpreter, that they and their people might come unmolested to my camp up to 10 o’clock, A.M. next day; but that after that time, if they did not come, my soldiers would hunt them up, and the work of destruction recommence. Accordingly, next morning before the time appointed, 60 Indians arrived. They had made known to them the intentions of the Government in regard to them, and expressed their willingness to immigrate to the Bosque Redondo. They declare that owing to the operations of my command they are in a complete state of starvation, and that many of their women and children have already died from this cause. They also state that they would have come in long since, but that they believed it was a War of Extermination, and that they were agreeably surprised and delighted to learn the contrary from an old captive whom I had sent back to them for this purpose. I issued them some meat, and as they asked permission to return to their haunts and collect the remainder of their people, I directed them to meet me at this Post (Fort Canby) in 10 days.” Carson later described: “They have all arrived here according to promise, many of them with others joining and traveling in with Capt. Carey’s command. This command of 75 men, I conferred upon Capt. Carey at his own request, he being desirous of passing through this stupendous Cañon from West to East, that all the Peach Orchards, of which there were many, should be destroyed, as well as the dwellings of the Indians…"
The purpose of this campaign was to intentionally create unbearable conditions for the Diné people, hoping to drive them to the Bosque Redondo Indian Reservation. But despite the success of Colonel Carson's plan, the Diné refused to let their spirits be broken. After finally returning to their devastated homeland in 1868, they faced more obstacles. Yet, like the rebirth that follows a devastating forest fire, the Navajo Nation emerged from the ashes with determination and strength. Today, the peach orchards and the Navajo Nation thrive once again, all thanks to a small seed that was planted in the midst of adversity. Let this be a reminder to us all that even in the darkest moments, there is always hope for a brighter tomorrow. Let us never underestimate the power of resilience and perseverance.
Beware the Bear
September 2024
By Lillian Bowe, Interpretive Ranger, Bosque Redondo Memorial
Respect for a person or thing does not mean they are loved. You can respect something and know that it is important, but that does not mean that you must like it. This describes the relationship between the Ndé and the bear. A healthy respect for a potentially dangerous animal is needed and it would assist in the tribes’ survival. If a child was not taught to fear the bear, it could try and get close to the animal and get killed. Most folk tales are lessons to teach people what to avoid and what is right. For the Ndé, the bear is to be avoided, but the bear is more than that.
Some of Ndé’s stories of the bear cast it as a villain along with the snake and owl. The bear represents a dangerous power that should be avoided. Some of the Ndé believe that bears are reincarnated ghosts of criminals according to James Haley in his book, “Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait.” This is not the belief of all, as the bear could also be a reincarnation of deceased relatives. Because of these views, bear hunting and consuming bear meat is prohibited. The only time a bear can be killed is in self-defense, but it should be done as far away as possible, and the remains should be left alone. Amelia Naiche, Ndé said, “And they have a respect for it. And that’s why they don’t eat the meat.” The bear was basically left alone as it was safer to leave the bear than to blatantly ignore the creature. The Ndé are very connected to animals, but this does not mean they find that all animals inherently good or evil.
The animals of Ndé culture are multidimensional, as they have different motives and are not clear in intention. The many stories told of the animals never fully make one species a villain nor a hero. The bear is a great example of this dichotomy. One story, told by Asa Daklugie, Ndé, has the bear as the antagonist. Daklugie tells the story of Botillo, who went hunting alone and made the mistake of setting down his gun while drinking from the river. A grizzly bear attacked the man, and he could not reach his gun. He had to fight back with his physical strength and a butcher knife. He finally overcame the bear and killed the animal. The body of the bear was left at his site. The next story has the bear as a hero who takes revenge for those who can’t. Gladys Scott Cojo, Ndé, retold the story of her former sister-in-law who was married to a Tonto Apache. Her husband was physically and emotionally abusive, which prompted her family to rescue her. During her escape, her husband came home early and started to chase her. She ran to the top of the ridge where she was met by a grizzly bear below her. Knowing bears could be the spirit of her ancestors, she asked the bear to help her. “You might be my grandfather or his sister. I am in trouble with that man. He is bad to me. He is very cruel. He beats me. He makes me a prisoner in the tipi. Please don’t let that man get me. Catch him, please. Don’t kill-just stop him from following me,” said the woman. The bear turned away from the woman and the woman continued to run. While running she heard a scream in the distance which she learned later was her husband. Her husband was not killed by the bear but had his hands mangled, his gun broken, and according to Cojo, his spirit broken. The bear stopped the man from finding his wife, which probably saved her life.
Ndé stories about bears are often personifying. The bear can attack and kill a whole village, yet in the next story, it can save individuals. Many Ndé stories do not clearly say who is a villain and who is the hero, unlike many Diné stories. The bears of the Diné are separated by species with the grizzly being evil, while the black bear is a healer and a guide. The bear of the Ndé cannot be pigeonholed. It might kill you or it might kill your enemies.
The Long Walk Weaving by Lynda Nez, Diné
Spirits in Weaving
By Lillian Bowe, Interpretive Ranger, Bosque Redondo Memorial
May 2024
Weaving for many people in the modern age is either a hobby or a way to make a living. For the Diné (Navajo), weaving has many meanings, intertwined with the core of their culture—it is art, it is used to support families, and it also has ties to ceremony, storytelling, and practical uses. The skill of the Diné in weaving is world renowned and this could be because of the care and dedication the weavers have for the art. Many modern weavers continue to prepare their own yarn using wool from the sheep they raise. It is a tradition that is passed down from generation to generation and continues to be taught. A question worth exploring is: where did their style of weaving come from?
Some Diné claim that they have always had sheep and knowledge of weaving thanks to the Holy People. This claim has been widely dismissed by historians and archaeologists who assert that sheep only became a part of their culture when they arrived with the Spanish and that, because of the significance of the Navajo Churro to Diné culture, they were added into their history as always having been there. However, the Diné people have shared through oral histories and their own research, how their claim of always having sheep is, in fact, true. Before the arrival of the Spanish, the sheep native to the American Southwest was the Bighorn Mountain sheep. The Bighorn sheep, sometimes called the sheep of the Holy People, while not domesticated, were very much present in Dinétah. The Diné would hunt them for their hides, horns, meat, and sinew. Their wool, which the sheep shed naturally each year, was collected, and used. According to Diné traditions, the Holy People promised that someday the Diné would be given sheep of their own, that would live among them and that they could care for. In one version of the history, the churro sheep were given and then taken away because the people became prideful and unappreciative and were told the sheep would return when the people were ready. In another, this promise was not fulfilled until the arrival of the Spanish Churro.
From other Diné perspectives, it is believed that the Diné did not start weaving until sheep were introduced into North America by the Spanish. Oral histories are passed from family to family, so there are differences in the stories, but this article will refer to the story told by Lois Duncan in the children’s book The Magic of Spider Woman. The story starts with the protagonist, Wandering Girl. Wandering Girl was the shepherdess for the Diné when they first were created. While her tribe was learning about how to live by Spirit Being in the summer, Wandering Girl was busy with tending to her flock. The tribe were taught how to hunt, farm, and build their hogans while Wandering Girl was in the mountains with her sheep. Soon winter arrived and the tribe huddled in their warm hogans. Wandering Girl descended the mountain with her herd expecting to see her tribe, but they were not outside in the cold. Wandering Girl, confused and cold, cried out for help to survive the winter weather, for she did not have a hogan of her own. Spider Woman answered the cry and offered to teach the girl how to shear her sheep, transform the wool into yarn, and then weave it. Spider Woman’s husband created the loom and soon Wandering Woman became Weaving Woman. As seen in the story, weaving began as a survival skill for the tribe, but the story of weaving in the tribe and the Weaving Woman continues.
Like many arts and crafts, it evolved. Historically, Diné picked up the skill of weaving in the 17th century. According to an article by Mads Jakobsen about the history of Diné weaving, it is known that the Puebloans did introduce the vertical loom to the Diné and thus started the early period of weaving. The story of Weaving Woman explains her first weavings were all natural colors of the sheep she herded which are the Navajo Churro sheep. The colors were brown, black, white, tan, and grey and her creations were basic in design. The Spider Woman warned the Weaving Woman of spending too much time weaving and to remember balance in all things. At first the Weaving Woman took the words to heart and only weaved for a set period. However, the Weaving Woman began to experiment with colors and patterns, and it consumed her life. She wanted to create the perfect weaving with every color known to man. Weaving Woman continued to weave, neglecting her husband and her other duties. Then one day her husband found her paralyzed next to the loom and he was unable to wake her. The reason Weaving Woman was paralyzed was because she weaved her spirit into her weaving, and she was stuck. The Spider Woman warned her to keep her life in balance, but the Weaving Woman put her whole life into the weaving. A solution to free her spirit was to make an imperfection in the weaving, and so a thread was pulled near the border and the Weaving Woman’s spirit went back into her body. The lesson now learned, the Diné continue to place a spirit line in their weavings. As the story imparts, weaving is very spiritual for the weaver and is interwoven to their art, but not so connected they get lost in the beauty. An imperfection reminds the weaver that they are human and not above others in skill. The periods of history in the style of blankets mirrors the Weaving Woman’s, as functional pieces were far more important than aesthetics, but then American occupation and the interment at Bosque Redondo occurred and the weaving changed.
The movement of the Diné from Fort Sumner and the reduction of their amount of land after Fort Sumner had a lasting impact. The rugs and clothing at the reservation went back to a simple pattern, as surviving the cold became the priority, but once the tribe returned home, the weavings became more stylized and pictorial. Since the Diné were bound by a treaty, more white settlers started to venture close to their land. The settlers were able to see the craftmanship and beauty in the weaving and started to commission pieces through trading posts. Trading posts had been near their land, but it was mostly for trade between other Native tribes and the Spanish, but after Bosque Redondo, more trading took place. Advancement in dyes and commercial yarn availability gave the Diné weavers flexibility in design and colors. Once weaving transformed to art, the rugs of the Diné became world famous and can sell for thousands of dollars.
Weaving is a defining part of Diné culture, and it was also integral for the tribe’s survival. At first, the weaving warmed the tribe, then, when the Diné were forced into surviving in the American world, the weaving became a source of income. Many Diné families to this day raise sheep, shear them, process the wool, and weave the wool, just as their ancestors before them. The patterns and colors of the rugs have also inspired American culture, as many patterns of blankets can be found on non-native made clothing. The Diné should be recognized as the source of these designs, and honored and respected for their craftmanship.
